The Rise of the Y2K Bug essays

The Rise of the Y2K Bug articles The Y2K issue is what could be compared to the El Ni At the point when I was in the main evaluation, my grade school put resources into a few PCs and began Introduction to Computers classes. I played math games and drawing with craftsmanship programs, in wonderment of, and marginally threatened by the savage bit of innovation before me. I had little thought of how it functioned, and even less of a thought of what was coming up. Throughout the years, the mechanical world has progressed quickly, and people have come to depend on PCs for pretty much every part of day by day lifefrom instruction, to correspondence, to banking, to power, we rely upon innovation. The Y2K bug is by all accounts an awful update that our innovation is only a tangled association of defective, indiscriminate frameworks we have come to let run our lives. The Year 2000, or Y2K issue is brought about by an alternate route imbedded into numerous PCs and microchips. During the 1960s, to preserve what was then valuable and costly memory space, software engineers abbreviated the four-digit year to utilize a significantly more efficient two-digit methodfor model, 78 would mean 1978. Sadly, PCs and microchips that despite everything utilize a two-number year will perceive 00 as the year 1900, not as 2000. When utilizing information including dates, the difficult will cause disappointments in number juggling, and can degenerate databases with inaccurate data. These kinds of computations are essential in frameworks including managerial data, booking, and charging. An announcement gave by the President's Council on the Year 2000 Conversion expresses: This [Y2K bug] could cause [computers] to either close down or produce off base information. In our electronic data subordinate society, that could be a major issue. At the time the two-digit year was first utilized in PC programming, nobody tended to or was pr... <!

Baxton Technology Essays

Baxton Technology Essays Baxton Technology Essay Baxton Technology Essay Understudy name: Joseph Maloney Student number: 10391669 Word check: 940 I thusly ensure that this undertaking is totally of my own work and has not been taken from crafted by others spare to the degree that such work has been refered to and recognized inside the content of the venture. Marked: _____________ Alkermes’ human asset (HR) methodology is tied in with gaining representatives who show individual activity and who get fulfillment of realizing that they are assisting with having any kind of effect in the lives of a large number of individuals consistently. Alkermes extreme objectives are to create prescriptions that address neglected patient needs, to help its customer’s live more joyful, more beneficial lives. The Athlone office of Elan must pick a technique that underpins the corporate goals of Alkermes. They should adjust and organize the different exercises of the technique to achieve their goals. HR techniques need to all the while center around building aptitudes, inspiration and conduct for an effective business procedure. As I would like to think the nonexclusive HR procedure generally suitable to line up with Alkermes corporate technique, is the asset based view (RBV) model. The RBV model moves in the direction of recognizing the firm’s potential distinct advantages and creating and controlling them to manufacture a worth making procedure. When Alkermes chose to converge with Elan one of their fundamental explanations behind doing so was that they could utilize Elan’s most significant asset, the Elan tranquilize advancements (EDT) unit. The EDT creates restrictive medication advancements that can be applied to various items, improving the viability of the medications. With Alkermes now having acquired a mechanical asset with an irregularity that will assist them with increasing an upper hand over their adversaries, they should now concentrate on their HR. They hope to secure skilled representatives who show activity and like improving people’s wellbeing. Brushing and building up these assets will assist them with building a solid RBV model. When Alkermes workers are solicited what is the primary target from the association the answer ought to consistently be, â€Å"Excellence in all that we do†. They seek after this greatness since they realize they are progressing in the direction of improving the prosperity of others. Alkermes would like to impart this equivalent speculation in the Athlone office of the association. They intend to procure capable workers who show activity, inspiration and realize their responsibilities are at last towards improving the soundness of their clients. They intend to set up a RD program where worker commitment is empowered and compensated. Above all they need to oversee execution with the goal that all procedures are done in the best way. In the event that these targets are met the accomplishment of the association ought to be handily gotten and advantageous. RBV shows that individuals are deliberately critical to a firm’s achievement and that they are a potential wellspring of maintainable upper hand. Alkermes have gotten an uncommon and significant hierarchical capital as the EDT unit; they presently should coordinate this with an exceptionally talented human capital that will get the best out of this innovative asset. RBV concentrates more on the HR pool, I. e. the workers than on the genuine HR practice, so representatives ought to have both an elevated level of aptitudes and an ability to accomplish. Making a decent HR pool can be difficult to emulate by contenders, so it can make an upper hand. Significant compensation is constantly a significant draw in pulling in the best representatives, as is advantages, I. . organization vehicle and medical advantages, as is reward and new position open doors for good work. However, Alkermes states that their responsibilities are at last towards the prosperity of the patients that utilization their items. This will pull in workers who feel they have a spirit commitment to help individuals out of luck. This is a case of drawing in potenti al workers utilizing a non-money related arrangement. When attempting to make a presentation the executives arrangement for an association you need to take a gander at all the kinds of capital that influence execution, I. . human, social and authoritative capital. RBV hopes to coordinate all the capital assets of an association to make the most fit HR strategy. Alkermes have as of now incredibly improved their social and hierarchical capital by converging with Elan and utilizing the EDT unit individually. Presently Alkermes need to take a gander at dealing with the exhibition of their human capital. When attempting to gather information on execution you can't totally depend on worker reports through studies about how they feel the HR technique is working. You need to gather progressively quantative information. Gather information on things, for example, creation every hour rate and occupation turnover rate, this will give you a more top to bottom thought with respect to how workers are preforming. You would now be able to utilize this data to settle on what prize and preparing frameworks to set up to improve execution. Correspondence must be both upward and descending in an association to find how workers are performing. It will give you a thought on what representatives need and in the event that they are most appropriate to the post they are in. Great execution the board will bring about higher working execution, which will convert into expanded productivity. Prize administration is worried about the execution of methodologies and strategies that plan to compensate individuals reasonably, similarly and reliably as per their incentive to the association. The targets of remuneration the executives are to enroll and hold, inspire representatives and to fortify mental agreements. They can be both fiscal (rewards) and non-money related (regard, I. e. work title). RBV takes a gander at getting and clutching the most ideal representatives, and the most ideal approach to hold them is through a solid prize framework. In general I accept that if Alkermes receive the RBV approach and consolidate the entirety of their assets via completing the destinations involved they ought to have the option to accomplish their participate procedure. I feel that the data introduced in this report is a decent rule with respect to how they should complete their targets. Ideally the merger among Alkermes and Elan will run easily and will be productive. References: alkermes. com/www. shrm. organization. digitalcommons. com.

Academic Essay Writing Services in Canada

Academic Essay Writing Services in CanadaAcademic writing services can be hired in Canada. The demand for academic writing services in Canada is increasing. Some organizations hire a writer with the idea of building an information database and then use that database to promote their organization.There are companies that specialize in selling academic writing services in Canada. This means that they specialize in selling any type of information and products that pertain to the business they are advertising. In turn, they are able to build an information database and then sell it to other businesses. One such company advertises academic writing services in Canada.Academic writing services can be hired in Canada to help businesses advertise their organizations. This is because many businesses in Canada have expanded out of their original areas of business. For example, some sports teams in Canada have expanded and now compete with business firms that do not have the resources of a sport s team.Business owners often purchase large quantities of advertising in order to reach the largest number of people possible. In addition, the adverts are placed in local newspapers or billboards. If these companies had a team of experts to help them place the advert, they could spend thousands of dollars on advertising and it would still not reach the audience they desire. This is where a professional academic writing service comes in handy.A business owner would prefer to use writers that are experts in their field. Therefore, they have to locate a Canadian company that specializes in the specialty they need to advertise their organization. The company should not be an academic body, but rather a business entity. This ensures that the writers are not solely concerned with research and teaching and do not believe that the readers of their work are as intelligent as the writers themselves.Academic essay writing services can be hired in Canadaand then given to business firms that ar e in the marketing field. Such firms would purchase articles from these writers in bulk and then place them into a great advertising campaign. The ads are placed in various places and on television, radio, the internet and other media. Business firms are grateful to have such qualified writing professionals on board and are often impressed by the quality of the work they receive.In fact, some business people in Canada offer their academic writing services to other businesses as well. This provides for an interesting scenario in which they do business with one another. A business person would ask the professional academic writing services provider for assistance in placement of an advertisement in the business section of a newspaper and the firm would gladly oblige. The business person would then do all the work of placing the advertisement and the firm would place the advertisement for them.Academic writing services can be purchased in Canada and then placed on a website. Businesses need such services to place advertisements in different places on the internet and to inform the audience about their services. When a business hires such professionals, they also gain the benefit of hiring a reputable individual who will carry out the writing and not a student who may not be up to the task. Another benefit of hiring a professional academic writing service in Canada is that the writer would be able to write up to a year before the firm asks for the writing.

Gender Roles And The Society - 1924 Words

Gender Roles and Inequity are important because we live in a society that is very judgmental. Many women have struggled with the chance to have equal opportunities as men before I was even thought about coming into this world. Many families remain together because of the work the woman puts in. However the woman never gets the acknowledgement they deserve for their commitment. The effort and devotion of the woman has always been unshakable in all cultures. However, the honor and accountability women receive from the society and men is completely unfair. Women have to struggle to get the equality inside their house and place of employment not to mention respect in the overall society as one. This causes a women to become worn out while at the same time trying to maintain their task as well as struggling for their chance of equal rights. It is known that racism and sexism are one in the same because of the unfair prejudice applied to them. Things may have changed to allow women to wor k next to men, however women will probably never make the same wage or have as much ability as men. No matter how much women struggle they will never give up on their chance for what’s fair. Discrimination in the place we work is still common in the 21st century just like it was in the 19th century. Because of this women are getting paid under wages and are being forced to overwork. First I will be discussing gender roles in the house, then will go into detail about gender roles at the place ofShow MoreRelatedGender Roles in Society1047 Words   |  4 PagesBroadly conceptualized, gender roles are what our society expects and values in their community. They shape our behavior and values, thoughts and feelings, even going so far as to denote a person’s worth. Gender roles are present in everyday situations. In the past they strictly dictated the behavior of people in the community (the right to vote, occupations women were allowed to work in), though in the recent past have become more subtle and more successfully challenged. In some instances they areRead MoreGender Roles and Society 1021 Words   |  5 PagesChanging Gender Roles in Our Society: Women’s Education and Employment Education and employment go hand in hand now a day in order to become financially successful in life. These are two unmistakably major parts of society today. In order to become successful a good job is needed, and in order to get the job a good education is needed as well. But women especially need to emphasize more in these two subjects than men; due to past gender discrimination which brought on Equal Employment OpportunityRead MoreGender Roles And The Society1924 Words   |  8 PagesGender Roles and Inequity are important because we live in a society that is very judgmental. Many women have struggled with the chance to have equal opportunities as men before I was even thought about coming into this world. Many families remain together because of the work the woman puts in. However the woman never gets the acknowledgement they deserve for their commitment. The effort and devotion of the woman has always been unshakable in all cultures. However, the honor and accountabil ity womenRead MoreThe Evolution of Gender Roles and its Role in Society1505 Words   |  7 Pagesof gender roles in society, stereotypes generally come to mind. Throughout history these stereotypes have only proven to be true. Major historical events have had a huge impact on the way men and women are seen and treated. In this way, women have always been secondary to males and seen as the fragile counterparts whose job is to take care of the household and most importantly, be loyal to her husband no matter the circumstance. Gender roles throughout history have greatly influenced society. TheRead MoreGender Roles In Modern Society728 Words   |  3 PagesGender is an integral part of social practices of human interaction. It influences on all aspects of a persons life such as self-assertion and self-development, family, work, school, etc. Through the gender lens a person perceives any kind of information and passes it to the surrounding world by using a gender display. The process of gender socialization and the content of gender stereotypes has great importance not only for the life of an individual, but also for the progressive development ofRead MoreGender Roles Of Society And The Bible Essay1691 Words   |  7 PagesGender Roles in Society and the Bible Upon losing the election to become the 45th president of the United States, Hillary Clinton gave a concession speech and told â€Å"all the little girls who are watching this...never doubt that you are valuable and powerful and deserving of every chance and opportunity in the world to pursue and to achieve your own dreams† (Clinton). While Candidate Hillary Clinton said these girls are â€Å"deserving of every chance,† our society may prove otherwise. Although women todayRead MoreGender Roles And Its Effects On Society1405 Words   |  6 PagesGender Roles In Todays Society Are Due To Nurture Society today places many ideals when it comes to proper behaviours regarding gender roles. These are considered societal norms that are widely debated and controversial. Society has created a norm, which encompasses specific expectations and rules that change the daily lives of men and women, giving them specific tasks and behaviours to abide by. These standards are known as gender roles, which are defined as distinguishing actions, thoughts, andRead MoreGender Roles And Its Effect On Society1278 Words   |  6 PagesFrom the moment we are born we are put into one of two categories, boy or girl. We are never asked or considered to be anything but. No in between, no blurred lines. And because of the society we created, we attach extensive stereotypes to each of those genders. This is simply known as gender roles, or more specifically; â€Å"a set of societal norms dictating what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on their actual or perceived sex†. ThisRead MoreEssay on Gender Roles in Society1178 Words   |  5 PagesGender Roles in Society Gender role is a commonly discussed subject in society. Gender role simply defined is a persons inner sense of how a male or female should feel and behave. Society and culture are also very important in relation to this subject. This means different societies and cultures may produce children and later, grown men and women, who have quite different views of a man or a womans place in the world around them, often determined by their cultures gender stereotypes. TheseRead MoreGender Roles, Masculinity, And Society999 Words   |  4 Pages It is accepted in society today that, for domestic disturbances, women are abused by their husbands and boyfriends, not the other way around. The reason for this is that men are conditioned ever since they were even babies to fit into this masculine gender role that hurts them and those who surrounding them. Many who are conditioned since birth to be masculine which can have a massive impact on them later in life to make them emotionally stunted. Media also displays the model that men cannot be Gender Roles And The Society - 1924 Words Gender Roles and Inequity are important because we live in a society that is very judgmental. Many women have struggled with the chance to have equal opportunities as men before I was even thought about coming into this world. Many families remain together because of the work the woman puts in. However the woman never gets the acknowledgement they deserve for their commitment. The effort and devotion of the woman has always been unshakable in all cultures. However, the honor and accountability women receive from the society and men is completely unfair. Women have to struggle to get the equality inside their house and place of employment not to mention respect in the overall society as one. This causes a women to become worn out while at the same time trying to maintain their task as well as struggling for their chance of equal rights. It is known that racism and sexism are one in the same because of the unfair prejudice applied to them. Things may have changed to allow women to wor k next to men, however women will probably never make the same wage or have as much ability as men. No matter how much women struggle they will never give up on their chance for what’s fair. Discrimination in the place we work is still common in the 21st century just like it was in the 19th century. Because of this women are getting paid under wages and are being forced to overwork. First I will be discussing gender roles in the house, then will go into detail about gender roles at the place ofShow MoreRelatedGender Roles in Society1047 Words   |  4 PagesBroadly conceptualized, gender roles are what our society expects and values in their community. They shape our behavior and values, thoughts and feelings, even going so far as to denote a person’s worth. Gender roles are present in everyday situations. In the past they strictly dictated the behavior of people in the community (the right to vote, occupations women were allowed to work in), though in the recent past have become more subtle and more successfully challenged. In some instances they areRead MoreGender Roles and Society 1021 Words   |  5 PagesChanging Gender Roles in Our Society: Women’s Education and Employment Education and employment go hand in hand now a day in order to become financially successful in life. These are two unmistakably major parts of society today. In order to become successful a good job is needed, and in order to get the job a good education is needed as well. But women especially need to emphasize more in these two subjects than men; due to past gender discrimination which brought on Equal Employment OpportunityRead MoreGender Roles And The Society1924 Words   |  8 PagesGender Roles and Inequity are important because we live in a society that is very judgmental. Many women have struggled with the chance to have equal opportunities as men before I was even thought about coming into this world. Many families remain together because of the work the woman puts in. However the woman never gets the acknowledgement they deserve for their commitment. The effort and devotion of the woman has always been unshakable in all cultures. However, the honor and accountabil ity womenRead MoreThe Evolution of Gender Roles and its Role in Society1505 Words   |  7 Pagesof gender roles in society, stereotypes generally come to mind. Throughout history these stereotypes have only proven to be true. Major historical events have had a huge impact on the way men and women are seen and treated. In this way, women have always been secondary to males and seen as the fragile counterparts whose job is to take care of the household and most importantly, be loyal to her husband no matter the circumstance. Gender roles throughout history have greatly influenced society. TheRead MoreGender Roles In Modern Society728 Words   |  3 PagesGender is an integral part of social practices of human interaction. It influences on all aspects of a persons life such as self-assertion and self-development, family, work, school, etc. Through the gender lens a person perceives any kind of information and passes it to the surrounding world by using a gender display. The process of gender socialization and the content of gender stereotypes has great importance not only for the life of an individual, but also for the progressive development ofRead MoreGender Roles Of Society And The Bible Essay1691 Words   |  7 PagesGender Roles in Society and the Bible Upon losing the election to become the 45th president of the United States, Hillary Clinton gave a concession speech and told â€Å"all the little girls who are watching this...never doubt that you are valuable and powerful and deserving of every chance and opportunity in the world to pursue and to achieve your own dreams† (Clinton). While Candidate Hillary Clinton said these girls are â€Å"deserving of every chance,† our society may prove otherwise. Although women todayRead MoreGender Roles And Its Effects On Society1405 Words   |  6 PagesGender Roles In Todays Society Are Due To Nurture Society today places many ideals when it comes to proper behaviours regarding gender roles. These are considered societal norms that are widely debated and controversial. Society has created a norm, which encompasses specific expectations and rules that change the daily lives of men and women, giving them specific tasks and behaviours to abide by. These standards are known as gender roles, which are defined as distinguishing actions, thoughts, andRead MoreGender Roles And Its Effect On Society1278 Words   |  6 PagesFrom the moment we are born we are put into one of two categories, boy or girl. We are never asked or considered to be anything but. No in between, no blurred lines. And because of the society we created, we attach extensive stereotypes to each of those genders. This is simply known as gender roles, or more specifically; â€Å"a set of societal norms dictating what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on their actual or perceived sex†. ThisRead MoreEssay on Gender Roles in Society1178 Words   |  5 PagesGender Roles in Society Gender role is a commonly discussed subject in society. Gender role simply defined is a persons inner sense of how a male or female should feel and behave. Society and culture are also very important in relation to this subject. This means different societies and cultures may produce children and later, grown men and women, who have quite different views of a man or a womans place in the world around them, often determined by their cultures gender stereotypes. TheseRead MoreGender Roles, Masculinity, And Society999 Words   |  4 Pages It is accepted in society today that, for domestic disturbances, women are abused by their husbands and boyfriends, not the other way around. The reason for this is that men are conditioned ever since they were even babies to fit into this masculine gender role that hurts them and those who surrounding them. Many who are conditioned since birth to be masculine which can have a massive impact on them later in life to make them emotionally stunted. Media also displays the model that men cannot be

Art As A Driving Force For The Abstract Of Art - 940 Words

Art can be for art’s sake; it does not need to be representational. Jackson Pollock was an influential American painter who became a driving force for the abstract expression movement. His belief that his art comes from within was an impetrative idea behind his style. His beliefs have a huge impact on how I view art, create art, and inspired me for my final piece. Pollock was born in Cody, Wyoming in 1912. His father, LeRoy Pollock, was a farmer who raised his children in Arizona and Chico, California. Pollock was heavily influenced by Pablo Picasso, Digo Rivera, and Native American art. All of these influences contributed to Pollock’s unique style. In 1929, Jackson Pollock studied at the Students League in New York under Thomas Hart Benton. He learned techniques that helped him understand space, line, color, and much more. In mid-1940’s Pollock introduced his famous drip paintings. These paintings were such a radical approach to the changes that happened during and after WWII. Media latched onto his methods and Life soon releases an article titled â€Å"Jackson Pollock: Is he the greatest living painter in the United States?† The content was â€Å"mocking and respectful.† Vogue magazine caught onto the avant-garde artwork and joined the trend publishing fashion photographs in front of the beautiful drip paintings. These widely known companies persuaded society to accept the new idea to art. Pollock struggled with depression and alcoholism. His premature death in August of 1956,Show MoreRelatedRobert Motherwell : Art History1099 Words   |  5 PagesProfessor Ming Art History 11 April 2016 Robert Motherwell Robert Motherwell was born in Washington in 1915, sought to be a conservative bank chairman as his father, Motherwell had other plans. Motherwell growing up showed more interest in intellectual and creative pursuits. Following the passion landed him with a scholarship to Otis Art Institute in Los Angeles, Ca. Infatuated with learning, he studied multiple different variations of education, such as philosophy, literature and art history. ThusRead MoreAttic Romanticism : Reason And Imagination1705 Words   |  7 Pagesmake sense of things, and is grounded in reality while Imagination is a more abstract concept that is variously described as recreating experiences without them physically occurring, as well as bringing an artistic touch to these experiences. There is a general agreement that while Reason and Imagination work best in conjunction with one another, Imagination is a stronger driving force for Poetry since it is a more abstract art form. Those who argue for Poetry driven by R eason also seem to believe itRead MoreFriday Of The Getty With Paul1007 Words   |  5 PagesXochitl Pereira AP Art History Ms. Burgonia August 18, 2014 Wednesday in the Getty with Paul Clichà © is often used as a pejorative term. Sometimes clichà ©s can be the way a major breakthrough of understanding can occur. As I embark into the world of art, this clichà © was a good thing. It was positive because as I studied paintings for the first time. I realized that as I was the beholder and the observer of the painting, I was responsible for making the effort of finding the beauty beyond a simpleRead More Chaos and Literary Comparison Essay example1261 Words   |  6 PagesChaos and Literary Comparison   Ã‚  Ã‚   Abstract: I will show how chaos is can be found in art, specifically in literature, and analyze John Hawkess Travesty to show the similarities between literature and chaos.    John Hawkes describes the artistic challenge as conceiving the inconceivable. In accordance with that thought, Wallace Stevens says, Imagination is the power that enables us to perceive the normal in the abnormal. It is arguable that chaos, deterministic disorder, is bothRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1407 Words   |  6 Pagesand technological change in United States (Roaring Twenties†). The Great War had just ended, and America exited the war victorious. Society was becoming more and more social and the economy was booming. Art, design, and especially architecture were becoming more modern due to the occurring Art Deco Movement. And many people had obtained or were close to obtaining their â€Å"American Dream.† In his novel The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald, through the use of his narrator Nick Carraway, a stock brokerRead MoreAnalysis Of The Oresteia 1241 Words   |  5 Pagesancient Greeks represented abstract concepts and their faith. The ma jor abstract concept being that of guilt, and faith meaning how the Greeks looked up to their deities for answers. If one looks at the actions of the furies and the depictions of the Gods in this story, one can get a unique perspective of what the Greek pantheon and mythos means beyond figures in a mythos, and beyond just characters in a story, but as important evidence of ancient Greeks making sense of the abstract. The Furies, thoughRead MoreAnalysis Of The Other Hand 1418 Words   |  6 Pagesbeauty we perceive through art can change or support a pre-conceived idea. On the other hand, Elaine Scarry’s view resides in the fact that our view of beauty promotes the spirit of justice. Art is not so much the focus, rather beauty is the driving force of these two essays. There is an educational aspect to beauty that implies improvement within an individual or society and is promoted through both essays. Leo Tolstoy’s â€Å"What is Art† rejects any definition of art based on the conceptionRead More Behind the Art Essay1684 Words   |  7 PagesBehind the Art What is art? By definition it is, â€Å"An occupation requiring knowledge or skill† (Merriam). Many people would argue that late artist Jackson Pollock’s work would not go under this category. But Pollock’s paintings were not random splats and splashes, but carefully planned and expertly executed works of art. In order to understand Pollock’s work, it’s important that you know a little about him. Jackson Pollock was born in Wyoming in 1912. His familyRead MoreThe Portrayal Of Women Since 1960 s Comics888 Words   |  4 PagesThe Portrayal of Women in 1960’s Comics We can learn a lot about history through art. Take for example prehistoric cave painting, the painting of pictures on caves gave historians insight into the mindset of a culture that lived a long time ago. Since the invention of the printing press and television, we can learn a great deal about modern culture through newspapers, television programs, novels, and print advertisements. In this essay, we’ll explore what we can learn about 1960s American cultureRead More The prince Essay1526 Words   |  7 Pages Niccolo Machiavelli’s â€Å"The Prince† attempts to explain the necessary tactics and required knowledge a ruler must attain in order to gain and maintain a successful reign. The novel serves as an abstract manual, addressing the definition of a good/bad ruler by placing emphasis on the required military organization, the character a ruler must posses, and the success that could be attained if a ruler should follow the guide. The scope in which the book is written is that of a scholarly observant. Machiavelli

Argentinean Defeat in Falklands War Free Essays

â€Å"Poor leadership and inferior technology† – Would these factors explain the Argentinean defeat in the Falklands War of 1982? The Falklands War lasted 74 days and ended with Argentine surrender on 14 June, which returned the islands to British control. The Argentinean troops were superior in number, but despite this, the British forces were able to take over the Falkland Islands. Poor leadership and inferior technology have been suggested to be two of the reasons behind the Argentinean defeat, and in this essay I aim to discuss these aspects, and determine if they can explain the Argentinean defeat in the Falklands War of 1982. We will write a custom essay sample on Argentinean Defeat in Falklands War or any similar topic only for you Order Now Firstly, I aim to discuss aspects in favor of the argument, beginning with the British superiority, respective Argentinean inferiority, regarding weapons and material. After the British ships had been sent to the Falkland Islands, they circulated around the Islands and were ordered to attack any Argentinean ship entering a specific area several miles outside the Islands. Argentinean ships approached both north and south, but a British submarine followed and was therefore able to track the Argentinean ship coming from south. The Argentinean ships were superior in number, although, the British ships were superior in technology, and combined with a little luck, it was possible for them to sink several ships, including Argentina’s most powerful warship General Belgrano. This marked the end of the naval war in the Falklands as the Argentinean ships withdrew. Argentina suffered from a severe economic crisis as a result of the â€Å"dirty war† when the ruling military Junta killed about 30 000 of anyone that could be regarded as opposition, mostly people with a left side ideology. They crippled from foreign debt, which meant that they couldn’t spend a great amount of money on new high technological weapons, as oppose to England who received practical support from the US. Although, Argentina seemed to have a large advantage in air power at the beginning of the conflict, but was never able to use its large numbers of fighter-bombers to establish control of the air space over the Falklands. Instead, twenty British Sea Harriers flying round the clock effectively knocked the Argentine Air Force out of the sky in the first two weeks of the shooting war. Each Argentine aircraft on the other hand, had to line up over the combat zone, quickly dump its bombs and missiles, perhaps turn around once for a strafing run, and then head back to home base, or run the risk of running out of fuel. This left the Argentine craft at an enormous disadvantage in pursuing the British Sea Harriers, in picking better targets, in avoiding missiles. As a result, the Argentines lost a large percentage of its trained fighter pilots, which is much more difficult to replace than the aircrafts themselves. Furthermore, as the war developed, the poor leadership and lack of experience seemed to be a decisive factor of Argentinean surrender. Brigadier General Menendez played an active role in controlling the Argentinean forces. Although, his strategy, his placement of troops, his supply lines, his responses to British actions; all demonstrated woeful military incompetence, which president Galtieri recognized during a visit to the islands, but refused to replace him, on the grounds that his removal might demoralize the soldiery and the Argentine populace, where the atmosphere already was unsteady due to the disliked ruling Junta. Argentine troops at Goose Green were reinforced by Menendez, but provided with no further support when they most needed it. Once Goose Green fell, Menendez seemed to pursue a persistent policy of retreat, falling back from entrenched positions at the least sign of pressure from the advancing British. As a result, he soon found himself besieged at Puerto Argentino / Port Stanley, encircled by land and cut off by sea, with no air support whatsoever. At the end, his soldiers broke and ran before the final British attack. Furthermore, a number of the intermediate officers abandoned their units under British military pressure, leaving them in charge of their sergeants or corporals. The vast gap between the privileged officer class and the poorly trained conscripts that comprised much of the Argentine army resulted in a demoralization of the forces in the field, and a tendency for them to crumble before the attacks of the British. As oppose to Britain who possessed a well-functioning leadership, the poor one of the Argentinean can be regarded as a decisive factor in their defeat. The aspects speaking against the argument will now be discussed. The British Royal Navy dominated the Argentinean navy from the start of the conflict, although British ships were vulnerable to attacks from the air. When the British ships approached the capital Stanley, The Argentine Air Force demonstrated immense bravery and tenacity in attacking the British fleet. Without room to manoeuver, the British ships were easy targets. A high number of dud bombs were dropped over the water, where 8 ships were damaged, 2 sank, 24 died and several was injured during a short mount of combat time. Because of the mountains at the Falkland Islands, the British couldn’t detect the Argentinean planes that emerged, which speaks against the argument; that the technology wasn’t merely superior. It also shows the successful Argentinean strategy. Also, the superior technology of the British didn’t always work at their advantage. At the sea, the British sent a message to Glasgow but n ever saw the Argentinean ships emerge before it was too late, because their radio blocked the radar. 0 British were killed, and this aspect speaks against the argument that superior technology automatically must be the better choice. When analyzing this argument, other aspects must be taken into consideration. During the naval warfare, the British were inferior in numbers and the decision to attack the Argentinean ships coming from both north and south was risky; if they lost any ships including the aircraft carriers, the outcome of the war might have been different. On the other hand, the fact that the Argentinean forces were superior in number could also be used as an argument that shows that the British possessed better leadership and technology because they were able to win the war. The success of the British leadership and the failure of the Argentinean were often obvious as the decisive factor. For example: when the British had arrived to Stanley, they decided to attack during the night and caught the sleeping Argentineans by surprise. To sum this up, poor leadership and inferior technology can explain the Argentinean defeat in the Falklands War. Why was Argentine defeated? -Unclear aims and lack of strategy- what to do after they have taken over the Islands? -Great Britain acted decisive and fast -Argentina lost support of the US and regional powers -Tactical mistakes -Lack of sophisticated spare parts -Insufficient training and equipment of Argentinean soldiers How to cite Argentinean Defeat in Falklands War, Papers

International Climate Initiative free essay sample

Measuring, Reporting and Verifying greenhouse gas emissions Vanuatu National Advisory Council on Climate Change National Appropriate Mitigation Action Non-timber forest products Orthorectified radar image Pacific Island Countries Papua New Guinea Reducing emissions form deforestation, forest degradation, conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of carbon stocks Reference Emission Level Reference Emission Level Reduced Impact Logging Forest Reference Level Resources Management Units Readiness Plan Idea Note Readiness Preparation Proposal Remote sensing Synthetic Aperture Radar Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technical Advice (to UNFCCC) Applied Geoscience and Technology Division of SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Vanuatu Resource Information System Verified Carbon Standard Vanuatu Department of Forests Vanuatu National Statistics Office REL REL RIL RL RMU R-PIN R-PP RS SAR SBSTA SOPAC SPC UNFCCC V ANRIS VCS VDoF VNSO page 5 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu 1. Introduction Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from ongoing deforestation and forest degradation are responsible for 17% of global warming. We will write a custom essay sample on International Climate Initiative or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page While the Pacific Islands Countries (PIC) contribute marginally to the global emissions, the larger forested PICs can significantly reduce carbon emissions from forestry. This opens up opportunities for these countries to benefit inancially from maintaining and establishing forest areas to mitigate climate change through a carbon financing mechanism under the United Nations Framework Convention in Climate Change (UNFCCC), the so-called REDD+ (Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation). Sustainable management, associated with forest conservation will have beneficial ecological, social, cultural and economical impact while contributing to climate change mitigation. In response to the recommendations from the 2009 meeting of the Pacific Regional Heads of Forestry Services (HOFS), the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) approved funding of 4. 9 million Euros for the project titled â€Å"Climate protection through forest conservation in the Pacific Island Countries†. The Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) implements the project in partnership with the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) from November 2010 to March 2015. The regional implementation covers all SPC member countries, but the four countries with the largest forest cover have been selected for support of their national readiness processes; Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. In Vanuatu, a Readiness Programme Idea Note (R-PIN) has been developed to apply for World Bank support under the multi-lateral Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF). Currently, the country works on developing its Readiness Preparation Proposal (R-PP), which will serve as national implementation strategy for REDD+. In an effort of coordination, SPC/GIZ staff has joined the World Bank representative on their scoping mission. The organizations came to an understanding that SPC/GIZ will focus on supporting the development of a system for measuring, reporting and verifying (MRV) carbon emissions and the Reference Emission Level (REL), while World Bank will support the policy process. As a first step towards the establishment of the national REL and the MRV System, the methodologies have to be designed. In a next step, those methodologies will have to be tested in the field, reviewed and adapted according to results in accuracy and efficiency, and finally rolled out nationwide. A mission to Vanuatu was carried out in October 2011. Interviews were conducted with a broad number of stakeholders, the available data was reviewed and in the end, a framework for the methodologies on REL development and MRV was discussed in a stakeholder workshop and presented to the National Advisory Committee on Climate Change (NACCC). This report describes the proposed methodologies for REL/RL and MRV for Vanuatu in detail and how national circumstances will be taken into account. The annexes contain the proposed contributions to Vanuatu’s Readiness Preparation Proposal (R-PP) document. page 6 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu 2. Defining REL/RL and MRV According to the decisions of COP 17 in Durban, Forest Reference Emission Levels and Forest Reference Levels (REL/RLs) are considered as benchmarks for assessing a country’s performance in reducing total emissions and increasing removals associated with eligible REDD+ activities. Here, Forest Reference Emission Level (REL) refers to the amount of gross emissions from deforestation and degradation, and forest management from a defined geographical area and within an agreed period under an approved business-as-usual (BAU) scenario against which actual emissions are compared. The BAU scenario refers to the development path which a system would follow if it were not influenced by any external program or policy intervention; that is, it is the scenario in which historical and current practices continue. While the REL includes gross emissions only, the Forest Reference Level (RL) includes additionally the removals from sustainable management of forest and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. A country has to assess carefully and in a transparent manner, how much carbon emission was saved due to REDD+ activities. The actual annual emissions have to be measured, reported and verified (MRV). The measurements are compared to the REL/RL. Any emission reduction in comparison to this will be compensated. The measuring and reporting of the carbon stock changes has to follow a standard in order to be comparable: under the United Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has elaborated guidelines for greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories. The Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technical Advice (SBSTA) to the UNFCCC has decided, that these are going to be standard for an internationally agreed REDD+ mechanism. In practice, this defines what data has to be collected, how it should be collected and how it should be analyzed. The compliance with the standards and the calculated emission savings has to be verified by a third party auditor before carbon reduction units can be sold. The widest spread certification company for the voluntary carbon markets today is the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS), which adheres to the IPCC requirements. It can be beneficial for a country to prepare for both, the voluntary and the compliance market, hence complying with VCS and IPCC standards at the same time. page 7 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu 3. Methodology for developing a national Reference Emission Level/Reference Level (REL/RL) The REL/RL for GHG emission reductions under REDD+ is based on the past, current and anticipated future development trends in forestry. The historic and future trends without REDD+ policy interventions have to be assessed as accurately as possible to draw up a â€Å"business as usual† scenario (BAU). The actually occurring emissions in future will be compared to the scenario and the difference will be the amount of carbon emissions for which compensation will be paid. It’s accepted by UNFCCC to submit a conservative estimate and refine the REL/RL later on, especially because the UNFCCC itself hasn’t produced final detailed guidelines yet. In the R-PP, a proposal for the development of a national REL/RL is required, taking into account the national circumstances that will shape this methodology, such as infrastructure, data availability, capacities, relevant drivers of deforestation, etc. The actual implementation work will be done after the FCPF has approved the R-PP. The methodology for developing the REL/RL is a technical issue, but relies on political decisions. For the endorsement of the methodology, the national level government has to approve the proposed reference time period, which will be based on scientific data review, the national forest definition and the aforementioned future development trends. The sections of a national REL/RL development methodology for Vanuatu are proposed as follows: Modalities: The decisions of the Conference of Parties 17 (COP 17 – decisive meeting of all parties to the UNFCCC in Durban, 2011) provide limited guidance on REL/RL modalities. Beyond, Vanuatu’s REDD+ REL/RL will respect the following modalities: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Activity specific REL/RL approach Piloting on 5 islands and bundling the results for one single reporting Activity specific temporal boundaries: different time periods for different activity types, reflected in the REL/RL Anticipating national circumstances Stepwise development of activity-specific RELs Modeling Spatiotemporal integration Factoring out non-anthropogenic emissions, as recognized by UNFCCC: how can the influence of natural events (i. e. yclones) be factored out? Methodological framework: The following tools and methods will be applied to collect data for t he development of activity specific RELs: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Focal groups and scenario development Surveys Statistical regression and trend analysis Spatial modeling page 8 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project †¢ Projecting removal by enhancing forest carbon stocks MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu Data requirements and availability: This section maps out which data is required, which sources can be used and how this will be analyzed. Key activities and work plan: A proposal for the activities and a sequenced schedule for the implementation is described. Institutional Framework: The development of activity specific subnational REL/RLs integrated into a national RL requires support and backstopping from different governmental agencies as well as local stakeholders. Summary budget: All activities proposed in the work plan are marked with a preliminary budget. The funding for the implementation will be requested from donors. The FCPF will provide 3. 4 million USD after approval of the R-PP for the implementation. page 9 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu 4. Measuring, Reporting, Verifying forest carbon emissions (MRV) For the measuring, reporting and verifying of GHG emissions from the forestry sector there are much more advanced methodologies than for developing the REL/RL. These have to be complied with in order to receive international recognition of the accuracy of measurements of carbon emissions and removals. The proposed National Forest Monitoring System is based on the latest decisions of COP 17 and the Cancun Agreements. It will also anticipate future decisions of the advisory groups to UNFCCC on REDD+. Being a small island state composed of 83 islands and island groups, Vanuatu is showing a comparatively low deforestation rate (Herold et al. 2007). Besides, governmental agencies and ministries count with very limited human, technical, and financial resources to manage natural resources. Currently, no forest concessions are operating in Vanuatu and timber harvesting is operating at a small scale level (Vanuatu Forest Policy 2011 2020). Consequently, Vanuatu has to aim at a cost-effective forest monitoring system focusing on core greenhouse gas (GHG) measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) activities. It will build existing imagery and mapping products focusing its efforts on closing information gaps minimizing the MRV implementation costs without sacrificing its accuracy. Just as for the REL/RL development, such an information system can be extended over time to serve multiple purposes in managing lands, forests, and property rights. While activity data will be generated in a wall-to-wall mode, Vanuatu should focus its GHG inventory efforts during the first and second phase on the 4 bigger islands Santo, Malekula, Efate and Erromango. However, a sampling scheme will be developed that supports the processing of emission factors which can be attributed to land use and land use change on all islands. In the third phase, the sampling scheme can be intensified to cover all relevant geographical entities. Along this line, Vanuatu’s REDD MRV framework is integrating building blocks developed at the regional level to reduce the national implementation costs. Particularly, it will anticipate MAR-SFM, the Monitoring, Assessment and Reporting for Sustainable Forest Management Framework (Thiele et al. 2010), a forest inventory approach adjusting FAO’s inventory framework to the specific conditions of small islands in the South Pacific. While the country will focus its REDD efforts during the readiness phase on developing its capacities in the managing geodata, the Applied Geoscience and Technology Division (SOPAC) of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) will generate relevant activity data to account for forest related GHG emission and removals. Although the UNFCCC Parties haven’t yet agreed to what extend the IPCC guidance and guidelines will be used in accounting for emissions and removals in REDD+, Vanuatu is committed to base its REDD+ MRV on the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC 2006). While Vanuatu aims at implementing a comprehensive national REDD+ approach covering all the 5 eligible activities, it will focus its efforts on geographic areas, policy approaches, and eligible activities which show the highest potential to achieve emission reductions and GHG removals on short to medium term. Besides monitoring deforestation and forest degradation, the MRV system shall be capable of tracking GHG removals enhancing forest carbon stocks at different scales (e. g. community forestry, ecosystem restoration) and in different ways (e. g. reforestation using timber species, agroforestry). page 10 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu The methodology defines in more detail how to address these eligible activities under REDD+. Due to the current lack of capacities for certain tasks, SPC should play a major support role to the Department of Forestry (DoF) in implementing the forest inventory and the remote sensing tasks. The lack of capacities will be addressed through intense on-the-job training and other training measures along the way. page 11 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu References Achard F. , et al. 2007: Accounting for avoided conversion of intact and non-intact forests Technical options and a proposal for a policy tool Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Joint Research Centre of the European Commission. Almeida-Filho, R. et al. 2009: Using dual-polarized ALOS PALSAR data for detecting new fronts of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazonia, International Journal of Remote Sensing Vol. 30, No. 14, 20 July 2009, 3735–3743. Asner, G. et al. 010: High-resolution forest carbon stocks and emissions in the Amazon, PNAS September 21, 2010 vol. 107 no. 38, p. 16738-16742 Bellamy, J. A. ed. 1993: Vanuatu Resource Information System. VANRIS Handbook. Prepared by the CSIRO Brisbane and the Department of Primary Industries Forest Service for the Australi an International Development Assistance Bureau. Brown, S. 1997: Estimating Biomass and Biomass Change of Tropical Forests: a Primer. FAO Forestry Paper 134. Chagas, Thiago, Jacob Olander, Charlotte Streck, Robert OSullivan, and Joerg Seifert-Granzin 2011: Nested Approaches to REDD+: An Overview of Issues and Options. Washington, DC: Forest Trends and Climate Focus. Chave, J. t al. 2005: Tree allometry and improved estimation of carbon stocks and balance in tropical forests, Oecologia 145: 87–99 Feldpausch, T. R. 2011: Height-diameter allometry of tropical forest trees, in: Biogeosciences, 8, 1081–1106, 2011. Geist, H. and Lambin E. F. 2002: Proximate causes and underlying driving forces of tropical deforestation, Bioscience; Feb 2002; 52, 2; ProQuest Biology Journals, pg. 143 GOFC-GOLD 2011: A sourcebook of methods and procedures for monitoring and reporting anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and removals caused by deforestation, gains and losses of carbon stocks in forests remaining forests, and forestation. GOFC-GOLD Report version COP17-1, (GOFC-GOLD Project Office, Natural Resources Canada, Alberta, Canada) Herold, M. , Sambale, J. , Lindner, M. , Urban, M. and Weaver, S. 2007: Satellite based monitoring of the national forest resources in the pacific island state of Vanuatu, DGPF Tagungsband 16 / 2007 – Dreilandertagung SGPBF, DGPF und OVG. IPCC 2003: Report on Definitions and Methodological Options to Inventory Emissions from Direct Human-induced Degradation of Forests and Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types. IPCC 2006: 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H. S. , Buendia L. Miwa K. , Ngara T. and Tanabe K. (eds). Published: IGES, Japan. page 12 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu IPCC GPG LULUCF 2003: Good Practice Guidance on Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry. Lafortezza, R. et al. 2010: Assessing the impacts of fragmentation on plant comm unities in New Zealand: scaling from survey plots to landscapes, Global Ecology and Biogeography, 19, 741–754. Meridian Institute 2011: Modalities for REDD+ Reference Levels: Technical and Procedural Issues. Prepared for the Government of Norway, by Arild Angelsen, Doug Boucher, Sandra Brown, Valerie Merckx, Charlotte Streck, and Daniel Zarin. Ministry of Agriculture, Quarantine, Forestry and Fisheries 2011: Elaboration of a Vegetation and Land Cover Map of Vanuatu† under the FAO Program â€Å"Strengthening of the Monitoring, Assessment and Reporting (MAR) on Sustainable Forest Management (SFM)†, elaborated by Martin Schweter. Mitchard, E. T. A. et al. 2011: Measuring biomass changes due to woody encroachment and deforestation/degradation in a forest–savanna boundary region of central Africa using multi-temporal L-band radar backscatter, Remote Sensing of Environment (2011), doi:10. 1016/j. rse. 2010. 02. 022 Olander, J. and Ebeling, J. 2011: Building Forest Carbon Projects: Step-by-Step Overview and Guide. In Building Forest Carbon Projects, Johannes Ebeling and Jacob Olander (eds. ). Washington, DC: Forest Trends. Pearson, T. , Walker, S. nd Brown, S. 2005: Sourcebook for Land Use, Land-Use Change an Forestry Projects, BioCarbon Fund /Winrock International. Potapov, P. et al. 2008: Mapping the Worlds Intact Forest Landscapes by Remote Sensing. Ecology and Society, 13 Saatchi, S. et al. 2011: Benchmark map of forest carbon stocks in tropical regions across three continents, PNAS May 2011, www. pnas. org/cgi/doi/10. 1073/pnas. 1019576108. Seifert-Granzin, J. 2011: REDD Guidance: Technical Project Design. In Building Forest Carbon Projects, Johannes Ebeling and Jacob Olander (eds. ). Washington, DC: Forest Trends. Smith, E. P. 2002: BACI Design, in: El-Shaarawi, A. H. and Piegorsch, W. W. 002: Encyclopedia of Environmetrics, Chichester: Wiley Sons. The Climate, Community Biodiversity Alliance (CCBA) 2008: Climate, Community and Biodiversity Project Design Standards, Second Edition – December 2008 The Climate, Community Biodiversity Alliance and CARE International (CCBA and CARE international) 2010: REDD Social Environmental Standards Version 1 June 2010 Thiele, T. , Mussong, M. and Mateboto, J. 2010: MAR-SFM. Monitoring, Assessment and Reporting for Sustainable Forest Ma nagement in Pacific Island Countries, SPC. The Vanuatu National Statistics Office (VNSO) 2008: Census of Agriculture 2007—Vanuatu page 13 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu The Vanuatu National Statistics Office (VNSO) 2009a: Vanuatu Household Income and Expenditure Survey 2006 The Vanuatu National Statistics Office (VNSO) 2009b: 2009 National Census of Population and Housing, Summary Release. The Vanuatu National Statistics Office (VNSO) 2010: 2010 Household Income and Expenditure Survey (HIES) Survey Operations Report. Government of the Republic of Vanuatu 2011: Vanuatu Forest Policy 2011 – 2020, June 2011. VCS 2012a: VCS Standard. VCS Version 3. 2 Requirements Document, Washington, DC: Verified Carbon Standard. VCS2012b: Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) Requirements. VCS Version 3. 2 Requirements Document, Washington, DC: Verified Carbon Standard. VCS 2012c: Jurisdictional and Nested REDD Initiative: Summary of Technical Recommendations – Version 2. 0, February, 22 2012, Washington, DC: Verified Carbon Standard. page 14 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu Annex 1 Component 3: Develop a National Forest Reference Emission Level and/or a Forest Reference Level Definitions According to the decisions of COP 17 in Durban Forest Reference Emission Levels and Forest Reference Levels (REL/RLs) are considered as benchmarks for assessing a country’s performance in reducing total emissions and increasing removals associated with eligible REDD+ activities (see Component 4a and Annex 4 for further details) . Here, Forest Reference Emission Level (REL) refers to the amount of gross emissions from deforestation and degradation, and forest management from a defined geographical area and within an agreed period under an approved business-as-usual (BAU) scenario against which actual emissions are compared. The BAU scenario refers to the development path a system would follow if it were not subject to any external program or policy intervention; that is, it is the scenario in which historical and current practices continue. While the REL includes gross emissions only, the Forest Reference Level includes additionally the removals from sustainable management of forest and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. 1. Modalities The decisions of COP 17 provide limited guidance on REL/RL modalities. Beyond, Vanuatu’s REDD+ REL/RL will anticipate the following modalities: Activity specific REL/RL approach: Due to different drivers, agents, underlying causes (Comp 2a) specific REL/RLs approaches and will be developed for each of the 5 eligible REDD+ activities. The choice of the approach depends on data availability, resources requirements, and the technical capacities available. While some approaches might be simple in terms of data requirements and can be easily implemented, others might require additional efforts. Defining a REL for degradation might require determining and combining different BAUs for illegal logging, charcoal production, and fuel wood collection. Approved methodological elements of the VCS will be screened and tested to assess their potential to be used at different levels. Piloting on 5 islands and nesting: As the emission and removal dynamics of Vanuatu’s bigger islands 1 depends on specific sets of drivers, agents, and underlying causes, the REL approaches will be fit and calibrated to these specifics conditions. Each REL approach will be tested within a given domain. The rest of the national territory will be treated as one region, as the islands show similar deforestation rates and patterns. 1 The regional GIZ-SPC program has selected Efate, Erromango, Malekula, and Santo as pilot islands. Tanna should be included as a particular domain, as it shows one of the highest deforestation rates in the past (Herzog et al. 2007). page 15 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu National activity specific R(E)Ls will be build following the Technical Recommendations Version 2 of VCS’s Jurisdictional and Nested REDD Initiative. Activity specific temporal boundaries: While Vanuatu’s historic deforestation patterns can be reconstructed for the past 30 years to calibrate the BAU scenario; it is difficult to generate similar activity data for historic degradation or enhancement of carbon stock activities. Thus, activity based R(E)Ls will be developed using different temporal boundaries concepts. While a reference year might be selected for the partial RL for enhancement or conservation of forest carbon stocks, the deforestation and degradation RELs will be based on historic periods. Anticipating national circumstances: The development of future deforestation and degradation patterns will depend on the dynamics drivers, underlying causes, and agents. In case of Vanuatu, the demand for land use change is particularly driven agricultural production which has to meet the demand driven by demographic change, urbanization, and growth of the tourism sector. Vanuatu approved certain sector strategies to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (cf. Comp 2a) which will be anticipated in developing activity specific RELs for 5 pilot islands. Stepwise development of activity-specific RELs: The development of the deforestation REL will be start with a construction and projection of the historic deforestation pattern evolving over the last 30 years. At a second stage, the historic change patters (activity data and emission factors) and their relation to explanatory parameters representing the dynamics of drivers, causes, and agents will be assessed. Within a third step, alternative sector specific policy and development scenarios will be tested to analyze corresponding emission and removal pathways. Modeling: The potential of spatial and non-spatial models for certain activities will be explored and all relevant parameters, assumptions, methods, and procedures will be comprehensively documented. Common scientific standards (sensitivity analysis, verification and validation of models) and good practices will be followed in developing models. Spatiotemporal integration: A national RL will be constructed by spatially and temporally integrating activity specific RELs and RLs. The national RL will be based on an approved macroeconomic development scenario. Factoring out non-anthropogenic emissions: According to the Decision of COP 17 in Durban consistency shall be achieved with anthropogenic forest-related greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by sinks as contained in each country’s greenhouse gas inventories. This requirement implies that parties have to factor out nonanthropogenic emissions and removals, e. g. caused by natural disturbances. 2. Methodological framework Different tools and methods will be applied to establish and integrate activity specific RELs: page 16 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu Focal groups and scenario development: To identify and explore Vanuatu’s sector specific development pathways (e. g. for tourism, forestry, and agriculture) focal groups interviews involving different stakeholders and experts will be conducted at the national level and on 5 pilot islands. These interviews will be based on national sector policies and development plans and will lead to the development of the BAU case and alternative land-use change scenarios. Complementary, the potential of Delphi-methods can be explored to balance the view of policy leaders with expert opinions from academe and other stakeholders. Surveys will play a crucial role in assessing the dynamics and impacts of particular degradation activities. VCS provides modules to quantify fuel wood extraction and charcoal making (VCS VMD0008). Apart, they will be used to understand the behavior of deforestation and degradation agents in a changing policy environment. Vanuatu will explore the potential of these methodological elements on selected pilot sites. Statistical regression and trend analysis: Vanuatu has comprehensive demographic and agricultural census data (see next section), which has to be explored to assess the statistical correlation between certain trends (e. g. demographics, agricultural production, timber extraction) and historic deforestation and degradation patterns. Spatial modeling: The DinamicaEGO 1. 8. 9 will be used to assess the explanatory power of certain drivers (e. g. access to forest, site specific environmental conditions, settlement patterns) and to project the historic deforestation pattern into the future under different scenario assumptions. Spatial models will be linked to quantitative assumptions about the future deforestation, and if feasible degradation rates. A spatial deforestation model will be developed and specifically calibrated for each of the 5 pilot islands. Projecting removal by enhancing forest carbon stocks will use methodological tools developed under the CDM such as TARAM 1. 4. It is expected that similar tools will be developed for NAMAs, soon and shall be tested as soon as they become available. Different approaches exist to anticipate national circumstances in developing the national REL/RL. Within a direct approach the results of a BAU based on appropriate data, approved policy scenarios, and sound modeling 2 approaches, for example a projected deforestation pattern for the period 2014-2017 can be directly combined with strata specific emission factors to determine the REL. Within an indirect approach a derived BAU can be adjusted to factor in future development needs, resources policies, or other factors considered relevant. While parties haven’t yet agreed on specific modalities how to determine or adjust the REL/RL, Vanuatu will stepwise develop and test different modeling options within both approaches. The explanatory power and quality of higher-order modeling approaches such as optimization in agricultural modeling and System Dynamics shall be tested in cooperation with national and 2 Here, modeling is used as a generic term covering simple statistical models (averages, trends), uni-or multivariate statistics, linear or non-linear dynamic models. page 17 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu international research institutions. However, these tests shall be used as opportunities to enhance national REDD+ research opportunities. 3. Data requirements and availability The REL/RL development will build on inputs from several other components to be implemented during the Readiness phase: Component 2a: The assessment of land use, land-use change drivers, forest law, policy and governance has to provide quantitative inputs to assess the weight of different drivers in developing the BAU and alternative scenarios. Component 4a: The forest monitoring system has to provide the spatial deforestation and forest degradation patterns as well as rates to estimate emissions and removal over time. Component 2b: The methodological REL/RL framework can be used to assess the performance of selected REDD-plus strategy options. Within its efforts to implement a national forest monitoring system Vanuatu will process historic deforestation patterns and rates for the periods 1990-2000-2007-2011 (cf. Annex 4a). Degradation eporting will be based on the stratification of the new vegetation map (MAQFF 2011) reflecting the state of 2011 â €“ 2014 and eventually 2007-2011. The high-resolution topographic derived from NEXTMap ® 2003 TopoSAR orthorectified radar images serves as a comprehensive and highly accurate spatial data source for roads, settlements, hydrography, and mining, and other infrastructure features. Besides the spatial MRV data the Government of Vanuatu is conducting different surveys on a regular basis, of which the following are of high relevance for the REL/RL development: Table 1: Available statistical data for REL/RL development Type Census of Agriculture Year(s) 2007 Coverage Structure and characteristics of agricultural activities of households; †¢ Number and distribution of household engaged; †¢ Data on the farm/holding/sub-holding area, quantity of the crops grown/sold, number of cattle and other livestock kept, quantity of fisheries species gathered/caught, etc. †¢ Population size and growth 1999 – 2009 by province and island †¢ Various demographic indicators à ¢â‚¬ ¢ Demographic, income and expenditure data at the household level as well as relative standard errors for the data †¢ Origin, visitor arrivals, purpose of visit, length of stay, means of transport Source VNSO 2008 5th National Census of Population and Housing 2009 Household Income and Expenditure Survey Tourism statistics 2009 (1967, 1979, 1989, 1999) 2006, 2010 VNSO 2009b VNSO 2009a, 2010 VNSO Monthly Current data availability and structure can be considered satisfactory for REL/RL development. Combining available statistical and forest monitoring data robust spatially explicit model can be page 18 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu constructed and calibrated which will link the performance of key drivers and underlying causes to the evolving historic deforestation pattern. The correlation between the degradation pattern 2007-2011 (if detectable) and certain agricultural, demographic, and socioeconomic parameters has to be investigated further. Additional data needs might arise when higher-order modeling approaches will be tested. These needs would have to be addressed by complementary funding sources. 4. Key activities and work plan BAU and policy scenarios development: An international consultant (natural resources economist or policy analyst) will elaborate the BAU and alternative development scenarios. The consultant will develop a policy survey design which has to be approved by the National REDD+ Steering Committee (Cf. Component 1a. National Readiness Management Arrangements). Based on the design the consultant will scope relevant sector policies to derive alternative development scenarios and their impacts in terms of land-use change. Once the Steering Committee has reviewed and approved these scenarios, the international consultant will conduct a 3-step Delphi questionnaire sent to a panel of national and international experts to identify the BAU to validate the approved scenarios. The preselected policy scenarios will be adjusted based on the Delphi survey results and presented to the Steering Committee. Together with the spatial projections of the BAU (see below), they will be validated by local stakeholders in 5 regional outreach workshops on the five pilot islands. The Workshop results will be documented, the BAU and alternative scenarios adjusted and submitted to the Steering Committee for final approval. Spatiotemporal deforestation modeling: Spatiotemporal deforestation models will be developed and calibrated for 5 pilot islands. An international consultant (GIS specialist) will compile a Geodatabase using available spatial (Component 4a) and statistical data. The consultant will conduct a spatial regression analysis to identify statistical correlations between spatial deforestation patterns, deforestation rates, key parameters and proxies capturing the drivers’, causes’, and agents’ dynamics. Based on the results of the statistical analysis the consultant will develop and calibrate a spatiotemporal model in DinamicaEgo using historical data to project the future deforestation pattern for each pilot island based on the past trend. Once the policy scenarios have been developed, their land-use change impacts will be simulated and assessed using the calibrated model. Together with the policy scenarios the spatial simulations will be presented to the National Steering Committee. Having been analyzed during the 5 regional outreach workshops they will be adjusted for final approval and documented. EFCS Database development: Enhancement of forest carbon stocks (EFCS) activities will be implemented within the national forest plantation program focusing on site-specific forest plantation concepts, in particular for degraded areas, and compensatory tree planting (Government of the Republic of Vanuatu 2011). These activities will have to be registered (location, stand characteristics), monitored, and measured. Thus, an IPCC 2006 approach 3 compliant database will have to be developed which maintains spatial consistency in reporting emissions and removals across the national domain. A geodatabase has to be developed which support the national EFCS registry reporting tasks. The geodatabase has to be designed in consistency with the reporting requirement established by the IPCC 2006 inventory guidelines page 19 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu and reporting formats, the forest monitoring system (Component 4a) as well as with future COP decisions. REL/RL integration: The spatiotemporal deforestation model, the forest monitoring system and the EFCS database will be integrated within a common GIS framework. This framework will support IPCC 2006 approach 3 compliant reporting on emissions and removals. The integration of subnational REL/RLs will follow the Technical Recommendations version 2 and the forthcoming Technical Requirements of the VCS Jurisdictional and Nested REDD Initiative (JNRI). JNRI compliance will be validated by an UNFCCC and VCS accredited certifier. Stakeholder coordination and outreach: The National REDD+ Steering Committee will accompany the process, review and approve milestone products (policy survey design, policy survey, BAU and policy scenarios, and integrated national REL/RL framework). Local stakeholders will validate the subnational REL/RLs components (BAU, policy scenarios, and spatiotemporal modeling results) at regional outreach workshops to be held on the 5 pilot islands. Annex 3a presents the work plan and the tentative schedule. 5. Institutional Framework The development of activity specific subnational REL/RLs integrated into a national RL requires support and backstopping from different governmental agencies as well as local stakeholders. The following governmental institutions will be requested to actively participate in backstopping, data sharing and framing at the level of the REDD+ Steering Committee: †¢ Ministry of Agriculture, Quarantine, Forestry and Fisheries †¢ Vanuatu National Statistics Office †¢ Departments of Agriculture †¢ Department of Forest †¢ Department of Land Surveys †¢ Department of Provincial Affairs The national REDD+ coordinator will manage the REL development, supervise the work of the consultants and liaise with provincial offices. Complementary research in the field of REL development will be coordinated and approved by the Steering Committee. page 20 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project 6. Summary budget Table 3: Summary of Reference Level Activities and Budget MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu Estimated Cost (in thousands) Main Activity Sub-Activity 2011 BAU and policy scenarios development Policy survey design Policy survey Delphi survey Policy scenario development Documentation Spatial deforestation modeling Geodatabase compilation Statistical analysis Model calibration Scenario tests Scenario adjustment Documentation GeoDatabase design EFCS Database development Geodatabase implementation and training Documentation Accounting framework design REL/RL integration Spatial REL/RL integration Reporting Stakeholder coordination and outreach External REL/RL validation Total Government FCPF Other Development Partner 1 (name)) 258. 5 Steering Committee Regional outreach workshops 2. 5 87. 3 61. 0 69. 0 2012 2013 3. 0 18. 0 24. 0 12. 0 6. 0 10. 0 10. 0 12. 5 12. 5 7. 5 5. 0 10. 17. 2 5. 0 11. 0 5. 0 8. 0 2014 Total 3. 0 18. 0 24. 0 12. 0 6. 0 10. 0 10. 0 12. 5 12. 5 7. 5 5. 0 10. 0 17. 2 5. 0 11. 0 5. 0 8. 0 2. 5 87. 3 61. 0 327. 5 page 21 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MR V/REL Methodology Vanuatu Annex 2 Component 4: Design Systems for National Forest Monitoring and Information on Safeguards 4a. National Forest Monitoring System Guiding principles The proposed National Forest Monitoring Systems is based on the latest decisions of the 17. Conference of the Parties (COP) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in Durban in 2011 and the Cancun Agreements (FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add. ). It will also anticipate the forthcoming decisions of the Subsidiary Body of Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) and of the Ad-hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action (AWG-LCA) on REDD+. Being a small island state composed of 83 islands and island groups, Vanuatu is showing a comparatively low deforestation rate (Herold et al. 2007). Besides, governmental agencies and ministries count with very limited human, technical, and financial resources to manage natural resources. Currently, no forest concessions are operating in Vanuat u and timber harvesting is operating at a small scale level (Vanuatu Forest Policy 2011 2020). Consequently, Vanuatu has to aim at a cost-effective forest monitoring system focusing on core greenhouse gas (GHG) measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) activities. It will build existing imagery and mapping products focusing its efforts on closing information gaps minimizing the MRV implementation costs without scarifying its accuracy. Such an information system can be extended over time to serve multiple purposes in managing lands, forests, and property rights. While activity data will be generated in a wall-to-wall mode, , Vanuatu will focus its GHG inventory efforts during the first and second phase on the 4 bigger islands Santo, Malekula, Efate and Erromango. However, a sampling scheme will be developed that supports the processing of emission factors which can be attributed to land use and land use change on all islands. In the third phase, the sampling scheme can be intensified to cover all relevant geographical entities. Along this line, Vanuatu’s REDD MRV framework is integrating building blocks developed at the regional level to reduce the national implementation costs. Particularly, it will anticipate MARSFM, the Monitoring, Assessment and Reporting for Sustainable Forest Management Framework (Thiele et al. 2010), a forest inventory approach adjusting FAO’s inventory framework to the specific conditions of small islands in the South Pacific. While the country will focus its REDD page 22 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu fforts during the readiness phase on developing its capacities in the managing geodata, the Applied Geoscience and Technology Division (SOPAC) of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) will generate relevant activity data to account for forest related GHG emission and removals. Although the UNFCCC Parties haven’t yet agreed to what extend the IPCC guidance and guidelines will be used in accounting for emissions and removals in REDD+, Vanuatu is committed to base its REDD+ MRV on the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC 2006). In its initial phase, it is aiming at a tier 2 compliant GHG inventory approach gradually improving the accuracy of emission factors over time to reach tier 3 for selected carbon pools. In the same way, the spatial resolution, accuracy, and precision of forest cover monitoring shall improve over time. While the detection of historic land use land use change has to be based on medium resolution optical (Landsat, Aster, Spot) and radar imagery (ALOS Palsar), the design of the future system will anticipate new improved sensor technologies (e. g. ESA’s Sentinel 2 sensor) and new processing methodologies. While Vanuatu aims at implementing a comprehensive national REDD+ approach covering all the 5 eligible activities, it will focus its efforts on geographic areas, policy approaches, and eligible activities which show the highest potential to achieve emission reductions and GHG removals on short to medium term. Besides monitoring deforestation and forest degradation, the MRV system shall be capable of tracking GHG removals enhancing forest carbon stocks at different scales (e. g. community forestry, ecosystem restoration) and in different ways (e. g. reforestation using timber species, agroforestry). Eligible REDD+ activities Vanuatu is committed develop a cost-effective MRV System, which will be implemented step by step. It will build on available terrestrial inventory and remote sensing data and anticipate new emerging technologies to be provided by different space agencies during the Readiness phase. At its mature stature this system will cover all the 5 eligible REDD+ activities. Table 1 summarizes the initial scope of the MRV system to be implemented during the Readiness phase. Annex 4. A describes the available and required data sources, processing methodologies, and scope for each of the 5 eligible activities. page 23 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu Table 1: Key systems characteristics of Vanuatu’s initial REDD+ MRV system REDD+ activity Activity data (AD) and Emission factors (ED) AD: Optical and radar data ED: IPCC 2006 tier 2 compliant forest inventory AD: detected managed/non-intact forest land remaining forest land ED: IPCC 2006 tier 2 compliant forest inventory AD: Management plans ED: site specific inventories Spatial domain Temporal boundaries Deforestation Degradation AD: wall-to-wall processing (83 islands) ED: terrestrial inventory on 4 biggest islands AD: hot spot monitoring on 4 biggest islands ED: Terrestrial inventory on 4 biggest islands Registered pilot sites AD: 1990-2000-2007-20112014 -2017 ED: 2012, 2017 AD: (2007 – )2011 – 2014 – 2017 ED: 2012, 2017 2012 2017 Sustainable Management of forests Enhancement of forest carbon stocks Conservation of forest carbon stocks AD: National registry of AR activities ED: species specific default values AD: residual areas (intact unmanaged forest land) ED: IPCC 2006 tier 2 compliant forest inventory Registered pilot sites 2012 2017 AD: wall-to-wall processing (83 islands) ED: terrestrial inventory on 4 biggest islands AD: 1990-2000-2007-20112014 -2017 ED: 2012, 2017 The National Forest Inventory Approach For REDD+ reporting purposes the following forest definition will be applied in accordance with the National Forest Policy 2011 2020: Forest is a minimum area of land of 0. 81 hectare with tree crown cover (or equivalent stocking level) of more than 10 percent with trees with the potential to reach a minimum height of 3 meters at maturity in situ. The Stratification of the National Forest Inventory will be based on the Government of Vanuatu’s recently released new vegetation and land cover map of Vanuatu (Ministry of Agriculture, Quarantine, Forestry and Fisheries MAQFF 2011). Eight forest classes open and closed high forests, low forests, thickets, mangroves as well as tree crops will be covered by the forest inventory, while GHG removals by forest plantations will be monitored for specific sites. The inventory design will follow the Protocols of the Monitoring, Assessment and Reporting for Sustainable Forest Management (MAR-SFM) developed by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC). Plots including subplots, units, and subunits will be established following a cross-shaped plot design (s. Annex 4. A). While aboveground biomass, deadwood, litter, and soilcarbon will be measured in the field, belowground biomass will be estimated using IPCC default values for root-to-shoot ratios. page 24 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu Aiming at a precision of  ±10 per cent of the true value of the mean at the 95 per cent confidence level for aboveground biomass in each stratum, it is estimated that 180 plots will be required to cover the relevant strata. The final plot number will be calculated after a pre-test of the inventory approach on Efate Island in 2012. Aboveground biomass will be calculated using new pantropical allometric equations (Chave et al. 2005). The Forest Inventory will be conducted under the lead of SPC and VDoF during 2012 2013. In accordance with the MAR-SFM protocol (Thiele et al. 2010) key biodiversity parameters will be assessed, too. All plots will be installed involving local communities and land owners. The results will be presented, discussed and validated by landowners and other stakeholders on each island during the Readiness phase. Deforestation monitoring Vanuatu will cover the periods 1990-2000-2007-2011-2014-2017 in reporting on emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. It will use the methodology developed by Herold et al. 2007 to the periods 2000 – 2007 and 2007 – 2011 complementing it applying radar-based methodologies to reduce the clouds coverage. Seven major tasks will be conducted during the Readiness phase: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Deforestation processing 2007 – 2011 Cloud correction 1990- 2000 Deforestation processing 2000 – 2007 – 2011 Deforestation processing 2011 – 2014 Deforestation processing 2014 – 2017 Vegetation map 2011 and 2017 updates Annex 4. A identifies the data requirements, methods to be used, and resources required. During an initial phase (2012 – 2015) all remote sensing tasks shall be conducted at the regional level with the support of the Applied Geoscience and Technology Division of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SOPAC). In this phase, relevant governmental units in Vanuatu will be trained to verify and use the products. Local stakeholders will be involved in all activities in validating the products of each task before completion. All products will be made available to Vanuatu’s REDD+ stakeholders applying a disclosure policy to be elaborated. Degradation monitoring Vanuatu will test GOFC-GOLD’s indirect approach in combination with IPCC 2006 reporting requirements. It will consider the strata open medium-high forest, open low forest, and open thicket as degraded. Other forest classes will be sub-stratified in intact and non-intact, and complementary in managed and unmanaged, if appropriate, applying GOFC-GOLD’s 6 criteria to report emissions from degradation. Reporting will anticipate the periods 2011-2014-2017. Backward reporting for the period 2007-2011 will be tested within a research project to be funded complementarily. Enhancement of forest carbon stocks page 25 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu The Department of Forestry will establish a registry for enhancement of carbon stock activities eligible under a REDD+ compensation scheme. It will monitor removals on registered sites, account and report corresponding GHG removals using formats and rules to be agreed under UNFCCC for REDD+ reporting. It will analyze the option to implement a national plantation and replanting program as a National Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA) and decide about an appropriate reporting period. Conservation of forest carbon stocks Vanuatu is committed to create and extend protected areas to be managed by communities and landowners. It will report on conservation of carbon stocks in those areas. Sustainable management of forests The Department of Forests will analyze the potential of promoting pilot activities reducing logging impacts. It considers the available VCS methodologies for Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) as an option for nested project-based approaches. Common Geodata infrastructure and Standards in terrestrial monitoring To improve consistency in data management, geo services, and ultimately the quality of the REDD+ monitoring and reporting the Department of Lands, Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, Department of Environmental Protection and Conservation, and the Department of Forests have to agree on common Geodata standards, formats, and official datasets. Capacity building: GIS and Remote Sensing During the Readiness phase GIS routines and geo-databases have to be consolidated first, before the remote sensing capacities can be improved. To facilitate the proliferation of common Geodata standards and procedures, GIS staff of different Departments dedicated to terrestrial monitoring shall be involved in GIS training and remote sensing technology transfer. A long-term capacity building concept will be developed during the initial Readiness phase to guide this process. Independent review and certification Vanuatu will follow the Technical Recommendations of the Jurisdictional and Nested REDD Initiative (JNRI) of the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS) version 3. 2 (VCS 2012a-c). It aims at certifying its REDD+ MRV system by an UNFCCC accredited certifier. The validation can be initiated once the integrated REL/RL framework has been established (Component 3). Verification can be conducted as soon as the National Forest Inventory has been implemented and the activity data for the periods 1990-2014 have been processed. page 26 of 27 SPC / GIZ Regional REDD+ Project MRV/REL Methodology Vanuatu Table 4-1: Summary of Monitoring Activities and Budget (USD) Estimated Cost (in thousands) Main Activity Sub-Activity 2012 Inventory preparation Inventory pre-test 58. 24 100. 48 155. 31 326. 00 45. 2 36. 75 2013 2014 2015 Total 58. 24 100. 48 526. 83 36. 75 National Forest Inventory Inventory roll-out Data processing and reporting Deforestation processing 2000 œ 2011 Cloud correction 1990-2000 124. 30 79. 30 203. 60 125. 64 7. 61 133. 25 Deforestation monitoring Deforestation analysis 2000-20072011 Deforestation analysis 2011 – 2014 External verification 43. 40 43. 40 119. 51 119. 51 70. 00 40. 00 50. 00 60. 00 50. 00 80. 00 70. 00 100. 00 180. 00 Geodata management GIS/RS Training Total Government FCPF UN-REDD Programme (if applicable) GIZ Other Development Partner 2 (name) Other Development Partner 3 (name) 438. 33 620. 94 243. 28 269. 51